Eastern Wu (东吴) was the southern kingdom of the Three Kingdoms period. Sun Quan declared himself king in 222 and emperor in 229. Wu outlasted both Cao Wei and Shu Han and was only brought down by the Jin dynasty’s invasion in 280.
Foundation
The Sun family’s power in the south was built by Sun Jian and Sun Ce, then consolidated by Sun Quan. The Battle of Red Cliffs (208) , won with Liu Bei’s forces and Zhou Yu’s command , stopped Cao Cao’s push south and secured the Yangtze as the border.
Sun Quan’s court moved to Jianye (modern Nanjing) in 211, and the state developed a strong navy and riverine warfare capability. In 222, Sun Quan declared himself King of Wu, and in 229, he proclaimed himself Emperor, establishing the Wu dynasty.
Territory and administration
Eastern Wu controlled the middle and lower Yangtze River valley, corresponding to modern Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui, Jiangxi, Fujian, and parts of Hubei and Hunan provinces.
Key territories:
- Jiangdong (江東) , The core territory east of the Yangtze, Sun family homeland
- Jing Province , Partially controlled after 219 (seized from Liu Bei)
- Yang Province , Lower Yangtze region, economic heartland
- Jiao Province , Southern regions (modern Guangdong, Guangxi, and northern Vietnam)
- Guang Province , Southeastern coastal regions
Administrative structure:
- Wu territory was divided into approximately 40+ commanderies
- Each commandery was governed by a Grand Administrator (太守)
- Central government followed Han precedents, with a Chancellor (丞相) system
Key cities:
- Jianye (建業) , Capital, modern Nanjing
- Wuchang (武昌) , Secondary capital, modern Ezhou
- Jiangling (江陵) , Strategic city on the middle Yangtze
- Chaisang (柴桑) , Naval base, modern Jiujiang
- Poyang (鄱陽) , Lake Poyang region, important for naval operations
Key figures
Emperors:
- Sun Quan (r. 222–252) , Founder, Emperor Da (大帝)
- Sun Liang (r. 252–258) , Second emperor, deposed
- Sun Xiu (r. 258–264) , Third emperor, Emperor Jing (景帝)
- Sun Hao (r. 264–280) , Fourth emperor, surrendered to Jin
Generals and commanders:
- Zhou Yu , Commander-in-Chief, victor of Red Cliffs
- Lu Su , Strategist, advocated alliance with Liu Bei
- Lu Meng , General who seized Jing Province from Guan Yu
- Lu Xun , Commander, victor of Battle of Yiling
- Lu Kang , Lu Xun’s son, defended Wu against Jin
- Huang Gai , Veteran general, famous for the fire attack at Red Cliffs
- Cheng Pu , Senior general, served Sun Jian, Sun Ce, and Sun Quan
- Han Dang , Veteran general, served three generations
- Gan Ning , Former pirate, became distinguished general
- Taishi Ci , General, defected from warlord status
- Xu Sheng , General, defended against Cao Pi’s invasions
- Pan Zhang , General who captured Guan Yu
- Ding Feng , Veteran general, served all four Wu emperors
Advisors and officials:
- Zhang Zhao , Senior advisor, opposed Sun Quan’s imperial declaration
- Gu Yong , Chancellor, served for over 20 years
- Zhuge Ke , Regent for Sun Liang, executed in coup
- Sun Chen , Regent, deposed Sun Liang
Sun family members:
- Sun Ce , Sun Quan’s elder brother, conquered Jiangdong
- Sun Yi , Sun Quan’s younger brother, assassinated
- Sun Kuang , Sun Quan’s younger brother
- Sun Luban , Sun Quan’s daughter, involved in court intrigues
- Sun Luyu , Sun Quan’s daughter, married to Zhou Yu’s son
Military
Eastern Wu maintained a standing army of approximately 230,000 troops, with particular strength in naval warfare.
Naval capabilities:
- Tower ships (樓船) , Multi-deck warships with defensive structures
- Covered ships (蒙衝) , Armoured assault vessels
- Fighting ships (鬥艦) , Standard combat vessels
- Fast ships (走舸) , Light, fast attack craft
Key military campaigns:
- Battle of Red Cliffs (208) , Decisive victory over Cao Cao
- Seizure of Jing Province (219) , Captured from Liu Bei, killed Guan Yu
- Battle of Yiling (221–222) , Defeated Liu Bei’s invasion
- Battle of Dongkou (222–223) , Repelled Cao Wei invasion
- Battle of Jiangling (223) , Defended against Wei siege
- Battle of Shiting (228) , Defeated Cao Wei invasion
- Battle of Xiling (272) , Suppressed internal rebellion
- Battle of Xiling (280) , Final defence against Jin invasion
Defensive positions:
- Yangtze River , Natural barrier, heavily fortified
- Ruxu (濡須) , Key fortress guarding the lower Yangtze
- Xiling (西陵) , Western gateway, modern Yichang
- Jianye , Capital, fortified with river defences
Economy
Eastern Wu’s economy was based on agriculture, maritime trade, and shipbuilding.
Key economic resources:
- Rice cultivation , Wet-rice agriculture in the Yangtze valley
- Salt production , Coastal salt pans in Jiangsu and Zhejiang
- Tea , Early tea cultivation in southern regions
- Porcelain , Early celadon production
- Shipbuilding , Advanced naval construction industry
Maritime trade:
- Trade with Liaodong (Gongsun Yuan’s territory) across the Yellow Sea
- Trade with Korea and Japan (Wa kingdom)
- Southern trade with Funan (modern Cambodia) and Linyi (Champa)
- Sun Quan sent expeditions to Yizhou (possibly Taiwan or the Philippines) in 230
Currency:
- Wu issued Daquan (大泉) coins in various denominations
- Large coins (Da Quan Wu Bai, 大泉五百) nominally worth 500 regular coins
- Currency debasement occurred during later reigns
Culture
Eastern Wu developed a distinctive Jiangdong culture, blending Han Chinese traditions with local Yue influences.
Notable cultural aspects:
- Naval traditions , Strong maritime culture and riverine warfare expertise
- Local aristocracy , Powerful regional clans (Gu, Lu, Zhu, Zhang families)
- Buddhism , Early introduction of Buddhism to southern China
- Historical records , Wei Zhao and others compiled Wu’s official histories
Notable cultural figures:
- Zhao Da , Buddhist monk, translated sutras in Wu
- Huang Xiang , Scholar, compiled local histories
- Yang Quan , Astronomer, improved calendar calculations
Legacy
Eastern Wu was the last of the three kingdoms to fall and played a crucial role in developing southern China.
Historical impact:
- Established Jianye (Nanjing) as a major political centre
- Developed the Yangtze valley economically and culturally
- Pioneered maritime trade routes to Southeast Asia
- Lasted 58 years (222–280), longer than Shu Han’s 42 years
Modern legacy:
- Nanjing remained a capital for multiple dynasties (Six Dynasties, Ming, ROC)
- Wu’s naval traditions influenced later Chinese maritime powers
- The Sun family is remembered in folklore and opera
- Many place names in Jiangnan region date from the Wu period
Fall
After the fall of Shu in 263 and the establishment of the Jin dynasty in 266, Wu was the last of the three kingdoms. Under Sun Hao, the court grew increasingly unstable, with purges, extravagant spending, and poor governance weakening the state.
Jin invasion (279–280):
- Jin launched a six-pronged attack in late 279
- Wang Jun led a naval fleet down the Yangtze from Sichuan
- Du Yu invaded from Jing Province
- Wang Hun advanced from the lower Yangtze
- Wu’s defences crumbled rapidly; many commanders surrendered without fighting
In March 280, Sun Hao surrendered at Jianye. He was enfeoffed as Marquis of Guiming (歸命侯) and lived in Luoyang until his death in 284. The reunification of China under the Jin dynasty marked the end of the Three Kingdoms period.
Aftermath:
- Wu territories were reorganised into Jin provinces
- Many Wu officials and generals were incorporated into Jin service
- The Sun family was relocated to Luoyang under surveillance
- Jianye was renamed Jiankang and remained a regional centre
References
- Chen Shou, Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志)
- Fan Ye, Book of the Later Han (后汉书)
- Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian (资治通鉴)
- de Crespigny, Rafe. A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms