Zhuge Liang’s Northern Expeditions (北伐) were five campaigns launched by Shu Han against Cao Wei between 228 and 234 CE. Zhuge Liang aimed to secure the Longyou region and, if possible, take Chang’an, in support of the claim to restore the Han. Sima Yi was the main Wei commander opposing him.
The five campaigns
The first expedition (228) saw Jiang Wei defect to Shu and initial gains, but Ma Su’s defeat at Jieting forced a retreat. Later campaigns alternated between limited Shu advances and Wei counter-pressure. Zhuge Liang improved supply and tactics but could not achieve a decisive breakthrough. Sima Yi generally avoided pitched battle and relied on defensive positions and logistics.
Death at Wuzhang
The fifth campaign (234) ended in a standoff at Wuzhang Plains. Zhuge Liang died of illness in camp. His army withdrew under Jiang Wei and others; his death was kept secret until the retreat was secure. Sima Yi, who had refused to engage, is said to have suspected the death only when the Shu army withdrew.
Legacy
The Northern Expeditions fixed Zhuge Liang’s image as a devoted minister striving for an unreachable goal. They also showed Shu’s strategic limits: the kingdom could raid and hold some border territory but could not sustain a conquest of the north. Jiang Wei continued northern campaigns after Zhuge Liang’s death, with no lasting success, until the fall of Shu in 263.