The Han dynasty (汉朝) was the imperial dynasty that ruled China from 206 BCE to 220 CE. It is divided into the Western Han (206 BCE–9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE), with the brief Xin dynasty (9–23 CE) in between. The Han’s collapse after the Yellow Turban Rebellion led to the warlord era and the Three Kingdoms period.
The late Han crisis
By the late second century, the Han dynasty was in decline. Factional struggles between eunuchs, imperial relatives, and scholar-officials weakened the court. Heavy taxation, natural disasters, and corruption eroded popular support. Regional governors gained increasing autonomy and military power.
Yellow Turban Rebellion
The Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 CE exposed the dynasty’s weakness. Although the rebellion was suppressed, regional governors and generals kept their armies and used them to pursue local ambitions. Central authority collapsed.
The warlord era
After the rebellion, warlords such as Cao Cao, Yuan Shao, Liu Bei, and Sun Jian seized control of regions. Emperor Xian became a pawn, held first by Dong Zhuo, then by Cao Cao. The Campaign against Dong Zhuo in 190 showed that warlords could not unite to save the dynasty.
End of the Han
Cao Cao controlled the emperor and the court from 196, but never took the imperial title himself. After Cao Cao’s death in 220, his son Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate and declared himself emperor of Cao Wei, formally ending the Han dynasty.
Legacy
The Han dynasty’s collapse marked the end of unified imperial rule for nearly four centuries. The Three Kingdoms period (220–280) followed, with Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu each claiming legitimacy. Liu Bei claimed descent from the Han imperial house and sought to restore the dynasty, but the Han was never restored.