The Qiang (羌 qiāng) were western nomadic tribes inhabiting Liang Province and the Tibetan plateau. During the Three Kingdoms period, they frequently allied with Shu Han against Cao Wei, providing cavalry and knowledge of frontier terrain. Their support was crucial for Zhuge Liang’s Northern Expeditions through the difficult mountain passes of Gansu and Shaanxi.
Historical background
The Qiang had inhabited the western frontier of China since ancient times. Unlike the Xiongnu and Wuhuan to the north, the Qiang were more fragmented, consisting of numerous independent tribes rather than a unified confederation. They practiced a mix of pastoralism and agriculture, raising sheep, goats, and horses in the high plateau regions.
During the Han dynasty, the Qiang were both allies and enemies of the Chinese empire. The Han established Protectorates to manage Qiang relations, but frequent rebellions required costly military campaigns. By the Three Kingdoms period, the Qiang were settled along the western frontier of Liang Province, controlling the mountain passes between China proper and the Tibetan plateau.
Alliance with Shu Han
The Qiang alliance with Shu Han was natural for several reasons:
Geographic proximity: Shu Han controlled Yi Province (modern Sichuan), which bordered Qiang territory to the west. The Qiang controlled the mountain passes that Zhuge Liang needed for his Northern Expeditions.
Shared enemy: Both Shu Han and the Qiang opposed Cao Wei’s expansion. Wei controlled Liang Province and sought to push further west, threatening Qiang autonomy.
Ma Chao’s influence: Ma Chao had strong connections with the Qiang through his family’s long presence in Liang Province. When Ma Chao joined Liu Bei in 217, he brought Qiang support with him. The Qiang respected Ma Chao as a fellow westerner and fierce warrior.
Military contribution
Qiang forces served Shu Han in several capacities:
Cavalry: Qiang horsemen were expert riders, skilled in mountain warfare. They provided light cavalry for Zhuge Liang’s Northern Expeditions, particularly effective in the narrow mountain passes where Wei’s heavier cavalry struggled.
Scouts and guides: Qiang knowledge of the western terrain was invaluable. They guided Shu armies through mountain passes that Wei forces considered impassable.
Irregular warfare: Qiang warriors excelled at raiding and ambush tactics. They harassed Wei supply lines and conducted hit-and-run attacks against Wei frontier settlements.
Zhuge Liang’s Southern Campaign
Before his Northern Expeditions, Zhuge Liang conducted the Southern Campaign (225) to pacify the Nanman tribes in Shu’s southern territories. While this campaign focused on the Nanman rather than the Qiang, it demonstrated Zhuge Liang’s approach to tribal relations:
- Leniency after victory: Zhuge Liang famously captured the Nanman leader Meng Huo seven times before releasing him
- Autonomy granted: Tribes were allowed self-governance in exchange for nominal submission
- Military service: Tribes provided troops for Shu campaigns
This same approach was applied to the Qiang, who remained loyal to Shu Han throughout Zhuge Liang’s lifetime.
Notable Qiang figures
Elders and chieftains: The Qiang were led by tribal elders and chieftains, though few are named in historical records. They maintained their own internal hierarchy while acknowledging Shu Han’s overlordship.
Qiang auxiliaries in Shu service: Many Qiang warriors served as named officers in Shu Han’s military, though they are often identified simply as “Qiang” rather than by personal names in the historical records.
Later history
After Zhuge Liang’s death in 234, Shu Han’s control over the Qiang weakened. The Qiang continued to serve Shu during Jiang Wei’s Northern Expeditions, but their loyalty was less certain.
After Shu Han fell to Wei in 263, the Qiang territories were absorbed into Wei (and later Jin). The Qiang remained a significant frontier population throughout the Jin dynasty and beyond, eventually becoming one of the “Five Barbarians” (五胡) who established independent kingdoms during the chaotic period following Jin’s collapse.
References
- Chen Shou, Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志)
- Fan Ye, Book of the Later Han (后汉书)
- Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian (资治通鉴)
- de Crespigny, Rafe. Northern Frontier: The Policies and Strategy of the Later Han Empire (1984)
- Beckwith, Christopher. Empires of the Silk Road (2009)