The Xiongnu (匈奴 xiōng nú) were a northern nomadic confederation that had threatened China since the 3rd century BCE. By the Three Kingdoms period, they were no longer a unified empire but were divided into Five Tribes (五部) settled along the northern frontier. Cao Cao formally organised them as auxiliary cavalry, and their horsemen served Wei loyally throughout the Three Kingdoms period.
Historical background
The Xiongnu had been China’s northern nemesis since the Qin and Han dynasties. Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) launched massive campaigns against them, and by the 1st century CE, the Xiongnu empire had split into Northern Xiongnu and Southern Xiongnu. The Southern Xiongnu submitted to Han authority and were settled along the frontier as buffers against the Northern Xiongnu.
By the late Han dynasty, the Southern Xiongnu were further divided into Five Tribes, each with its own chieftain:
- Left Tribe (左部) , Stationed in Taiyuan Commandery
- Right Tribe (右部) , Stationed in Xinxing Commandery
- South Tribe (南部) , Stationed in Pingyang Commandery
- North Tribe (北部) , Stationed in Jiuyuan Commandery
- Centre Tribe (中部) , Stationed in Zishi County
Relationship with Cao Cao
In 202, after defeating Yuan Shao at Guandu, Cao Cao turned his attention to the northern frontier. The Xiongnu chieftain Liu Bao (also known as Chanyu Yufuluo) had supported Yuan Shao, so Cao Cao moved to secure Xiongnu loyalty.
Cao Cao’s organisation (216):
- Formally divided the Xiongnu into Five Tribes
- Appointed Chinese supervisors (司马) to each tribe
- Required Xiongnu chieftains to reside in Ye as hostages
- Recruited Xiongnu cavalry for Wei campaigns
This system ensured Xiongnu military service while preventing unified rebellion. The Xiongnu provided elite cavalry for Wei’s northern campaigns and border defence.
Military service under Wei
Xiongnu cavalry served in several major Wei campaigns:
Battle of White Wolf Mountain (207): Xiongnu auxiliaries fought alongside Cao Cao against the Wuhuan and Yuan Shao’s sons. Their cavalry expertise was crucial in the decisive victory.
Hanzhong Campaign (217–219): Xiongnu horsemen served in Cao Cao’s forces against Liu Bei, though the campaign ultimately failed.
Border defence: Xiongnu tribes guarded the northern frontier against fresh nomadic incursions, particularly from the Xianbei and other emerging groups.
Notable Xiongnu figures
Liu Bao (Yufuluo Chanyu): The last recognised Chanyu of the Southern Xiongnu. He was held hostage in Ye after 216, ensuring Xiongnu cooperation with Wei.
Liu Qubei: Successor to Liu Bao, maintained Xiongnu service under Wei through the 220s and 230s.
Liu Meng: A Xiongnu chieftain who rebelled against Wei in 271 during the Jin dynasty, marking the beginning of Xiongnu unrest that would eventually contribute to the fall of northern China.
Later history
The Xiongnu served Wei loyally throughout the Three Kingdoms period. However, after the Jin dynasty unified China in 280, tensions increased:
- 271: Liu Meng’s rebellion (suppressed)
- 290s: Increasing Xiongnu autonomy under Liu Yuan
- 304: Liu Yuan declares independence, founding Han Zhao
- 316: Han Zhao conquers Chang’an, ending Western Jin
The Xiongnu who had served as Wei auxiliaries for three generations ultimately became instruments of the dynasty’s destruction.
References
- Chen Shou, Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志)
- Fan Ye, Book of the Later Han (后汉书)
- Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian (资治通鉴)
- de Crespigny, Rafe. Northern Frontier: The Policies and Strategy of the Later Han Empire (1984)
- Barfield, Thomas. The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China (1989)